Sustainable Natural Resources and Ecosystem Management & Protection

Country Description

Sri Lanka is a small island nation in the Indian Ocean, with a warm and humid climate influenced by its geographical position between 6°N and 10°N latitude. The country has four distinct climate seasons: the two monsoons—the southwest monsoon (Yala) from May to October and the northeast monsoon (Maha) from December to March, as well as two inter-monsoonal periods. The southwest monsoon brings heavy rainfall to the western, southern, and central highlands, while the northeast monsoon affects the northern and eastern regions (Climate Change Knowledge Portal). Average annual temperatures range between 28°C and 30°C in coastal areas and can drop to around 15°C in the central highlands. However, due to climate change, Sri Lanka is experiencing increasing temperatures, with projections indicating a rise of up to 3.5°C by 2100 under high-emission scenarios (World Bank Group). 

Additionally, Sri Lanka is highly vulnerable to extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, landslides, and cyclones, which have intensified in recent decades. Sri Lanka experiences significant spatial and temporal variations in droughts and floods. Climate change is intensifying these challenges by increasing rainfall variability and extreme temperatures, leading to new risks such as salinity intrusion, coastal erosion, and sea level rise. The rising frequency and intensity of climate-induced disasters pose a growing threat to the country’s socioeconomic development. (Asian Development Bank).  

In response, Sri Lanka has developed various adaptation and mitigation strategies, including commitments under its NDC (2021) to the Paris Agreement. These efforts focus on enhancing disaster resilience, promoting sustainable agriculture, improving water resource management, and transitioning to renewable energy sources.  

Country Description

Senegal is a country that is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change from drought, locust invasion, flooding and related health epidemics, sea-level rise, coastal erosion and its corollaries, and bush fire (World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal). The country is considered highly vulnerable to recurring environmental shocks, with droughts and floods having intensified in recent years, and climate change is expected to further increase the extremes of weather patterns and natural hazards putting vulnerable populations such as the 50.8 percent of the population (8,579 thousand people in 2021) considered as multidimensionally poor, while an additional 18.2 percent is classified as vulnerable to multidimensional poverty (3,069 thousand people in 2021) (2023 Multidimensional Poverty index, UNDP). The adverse effects of the climate crisis disproportionately affect the poor, mainly through decreased agricultural productivity, increased food prices, coastal flooding and erosion, and associated health hazards, with female-headed households more economically vulnerable to even modest levels of climate change (World Bank Group Systematic Country Diagnostic of Senegal).

Country Description

Iraq is a country in southwest Asia with over 40% of its land covered by desert (World Bank Group, 2021). It has three distinct climate zones with a warm desert climate in roughly 70% of the country’s territory, a Mediterranean climate in the mountainous north, and a semi-arid transitional zone between the mountains and desert (IEA, 2025). There is high variation in average annual temperature and precipitation between the high mountains in the north and the southern desert (Red Crecent Society, 2022).  

Iraq faces high exposure to the physical risks of climate change in the form of increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events (e.g., floods, droughts, and heatwaves) (World Bank Group, 2023). Under a high emission scenario, Iraq is expected to face dramatic temperature rises by the end of the century, with some areas in the south expected to face a rise of 5.8°C compared to the 1850-1900 baseline (IEA, 2025). One of the key threats Iraq faces is water scarcity which, without significant intervention, will continue to worsen with severe knock-on effects for its agricultural system and food security (IEA, 2025), particularly in the south. Rising temperatures and population growth are expected to increase demand for air conditioning and refrigeration, further burdening the country’s already vulnerable electricity network (IEA, 2025). 

It’s NDC commitments remain modest compared to its peers and Iraq’s Electricity Law does encourage the adoption of renewables, but Iraq’s development model remains oil-dependent which exacerbates social divides and inequalities that leave it ill-prepared to handle the physical and financial effects of climate change (World Bank Group, 2023). 

Country Description

East Timor is a small insular country located in Southeast Asia with a population of approximately 1.3 million people. Its tropical climate is heavily influenced by the West Pacific Monsoon, altitude variations in the mountains, as well as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The country is highly vulnerable to natural hazards, namely cyclones, earthquakes, tsunamis and heavy rainfall (World Bank Climate Risk Country Profile). 

East Timor’s economy is primarily agrarian, with 70% of the families relying on some form of farming activity for their livelihoods. Despite development work, East Timor still suffers from high levels of poverty, inadequate infrastructure and limited social welfare (World Bank Climate Risk Country Profile). 

Higher temperatures altered precipitation patterns and increased heavy rainfall events are some of the impacts of climate change for this insular country, and are expected to exacerbate vulnerability and inequality, particularly in food security. Altered rainfall patterns will drastically affect East Timor’s food production, the rural poor and other marginalized groups being the most vulnerable. On top of that, water resources, forestry and public health are projected to be the most vulnerable sectors to climate change (World Bank Climate Risk Country Profile). 

Country Description

Denmark has a distinctly coastal climate, with mild, damp winters and cool, unsettled summers. However, the weather in Denmark is greatly affected by the proximity of both the sea and the continent. This means that the weather can change, depending on the prevailing wind direction (World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal). Rising sea levels threaten coastal areas, while warmer temperatures lead to more frequent heatwaves and altered precipitation patterns. These changes impact agriculture and biodiversity. 
 
While Denmark, as a developed nation, is relatively well-positioned to adapt to the impacts of climate change, certain vulnerable populations within the country may face specific socioeconomic challenges. For instance, coastal communities may experience property damage and displacement due to sea-level rise and storm surges. Denmark has implemented policies to mitigate climate change adaptation, and its National Adaptation Plan focuses on five general areas of initiative: an improved framework for climate change adaptation; more consultancy and a new knowledge base; strengthened collaboration and coordination; green transition; international climate change adaptation (Climate ADAPT).

Country Description

Colombia, located in the northwest of South America, is a geographically varied country, with the Andes Mountains running through it and lowland plains in the east. It has a coastline along the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, with the Amazon tropical rainforests to the southeast. With a population of 50.8 million in 2020, expected to grow to 56 million by 2050, Colombia’s population is largely concentrated in the Andean highlands and the Caribbean coast, with less than 10% living in the eastern Llanos and tropical forests. Colombia is highly vulnerable to extreme weather, especially flooding caused by “La Niña” events. The Caribbean and Andean regions are particularly susceptible, with sectors such as housing, transportation, energy, agriculture, and health at significant risk from these climate impacts (World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal). Due to its varied elevations, Colombia experiences significant regional differences in temperature and precipitation. The coastal and eastern lowland areas have a tropical climate, while the highlands and Andes are cooler (UNEP GRID-Geneva). 

Ranked 5th in the 2024 World Risk Report, Colombia is one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change (World Risk Index 2024). Mismanagement of forests, land, and natural resources, along with poor land-use planning in sectors like oil, mining, and agriculture, exacerbates deforestation and land degradation. Colombia’s geographic location makes it highly exposed to natural hazards, and climate-related disasters accounted for nearly 90% of the emergencies reported between 1998 and 2011, resulting in substantial economic losses. Without improved disaster risk management in urban, coastal, and agricultural areas, the country faces a continued rise in the frequency and economic cost of natural disasters.

Country Description

Burundi is a landlocked country located in the Great Lakes region of Africa. It is one of the smallest and least-developed countries in Africa. It has a population of 14 million people, and 78% of them live below the poverty line (African Development Bank).

Burundi is essentially an agricultural country, with crop production and animal husbandry contributing about half of the GDP. Climate change is projected to cause higher temperatures and more extreme rainfall that will affect largely the economy and people’s lives due to the heavy reliance on agriculture. Furthermore, poverty hinders people’s capacity to adapt to the changing climate (African Development Bank).

Extreme rainfall events may negatively affect access to safe water sources as well as hydropower production. Moreover, high urbanization rates combined with poverty create a special concern in urban settlements, in terms of the impacts of disasters and the provision of basic services (African Development Bank).

Country Description

Barbados, a small island nation within the Carribean region considered is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The country is vulnerable to hurricanes and natural hazards and is particularly susceptible to coastal inundation and sea level rise, which increase tidal and storm surge levels, coastal erosion, increasing temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns, cyclones, and droughts among others (World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal).

Barbados has also been noted as a country at the forefront of reforming the world of development finance, particularly how rich countries help poor countries cope with and adapt to climate change, through movements like the Bridgetown Initiative. (World Economic Forum)

Country Description

The Ivory Coast is a country in West Africa along the Atlantic Ocean. It is characterized by flat plains with higher mountains in the west. The coast has a tropical climate whilst the north is largely savannah. The Ivory Coast has among the highest rates of biodiversity globally, but also one of the highest rates of deforestation (PIK, n.d.). The Ivory Coast’s location, economic structure, and limited adaptive capacity make it one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to climate change (137/187 on the 2025 ND-GAIN Index).  

Compared to pre-industrial levels, average temperatures in Ivory Coast are projected to increase between 1.7°C-3.7°C by 2080 (PIK, n.d.). Precipitation projections are uncertain, however future dry and wet periods are expected to become more extreme (ibid.). Sea level rise is expected to threaten coastal communities – the majority of the country’s 25 million people live along its coast – as well as water quality and availability due to saline intrusion (ibid.). Coastal fisheries are projected to see a 26% reduction by 2050 due to rising temperatures and the changes in rainfall patterns (among other factors) are expected to worsen water availability, soil quality, and importantly, cocoa yields (GRID Geneva, n.d.). Primarily subsistence-based and rain-fed agriculture is the backbone of the Ivory Coast’s economy and is at risk from rising temperatures and water insecurity. The agricultural sector has low adaptive capacity which underlies its vulnerability to climate change (World Bank Group, 2023).  

GRID Geneva (n.d.) argues that there is strong political will in the Ivory Coast for climate action, however, much remains to be done in terms of operationalizing policies. The country faces challenges in terms of technical capacity, limited coordination, and insufficient mainstreaming of climate policies. The Ivory Coast’s REDD+ strategy aims to reduce deforestation, and it is working with the Cocoa and Forests Initiative to reduce the pressure of cocoa production on forests. 

Country Description

Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia with a coastline along the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Myanmar’s three ecological zones are its central drylands, its coast, and hills. With high susceptibility to floods, natural hazards, cyclones, extreme heat, and landslides, sea level rise, and a poverty rate that has doubled since 2017 (UNDP, 2024), ND-GAIN (2025) ranks Myanmar as one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world.  

Over the past 60 years, Myanmar has seen increasing temperatures, more erratic rainfall, and a progressive alteration of its monsoon patterns with large variation across the country (Tun Oo, 2023). Extreme weather events are projected to continue, and with a shorter monsoon season and projected heavy precipitation events, flash floods are expected to become more frequent (ibid.). This is expected to have severe consequences in terms of food and water security, infrastructural safety, and poverty. Roughly 70% of Myanmar’s population lives in rural areas and roughly half of its population is engaged in agriculture (NUPI, 2024). The central dry zone where most of all crops in Myanmar are grown is at risk of extreme heat, water scarcity and drought (Tun Oo, 2023). Existing vulnerabilities in the country further contribute to its climate risks. For instance, in the southern coastal region poor villagers have turned from fishing-based livelihoods to charcoal production leading to deforestation of mangroves that are key natural barriers against storm surges (Kim, 2024). 

In its NDC (2021) Myanmar outlines that adaptation is its key priority with a focus on building the resilience of vulnerable communities and ecosystems, however the ongoing military takeover in Myanmar has triggered a humanitarian crisis and heightened its vulnerability to climate change (OHCHR, 2023). 

Country Description

Cuba is an archipelago that comprises the island of Cuba, the Isle of Youth and over 1,600 smaller islands and cays. With a population exceeding 11 million people (2020), Cuba is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate variability. The country depends heavily on rainwater as its sole water resource, which makes it susceptible to changes in precipitation patterns. Rising temperatures also pose public health risks, including an increased prevalence of diseases such as dengue fever, diarrhea, chickenpox, and other viral infections. Additionally, Cuba faces challenges from rising sea levels, higher temperatures, and decreasing rainfall. Key sectors like agriculture, forestry and tourism are particularly at risk from these climatic changes (World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal). 

Country Description

Zambia is a large, landlocked country in central-southern Africa. It has a predominantly sub-tropical with one wet rainy season and two dry seasons, though rainfall varies significantly across the country. Its economy is predominantly based on the exploitation of its natural resources. Its climate is highly variable with droughts, floods, and extreme temperatures being increasingly frequent and intense in the past decades.  

Zambia’s average annual temperature is expected to increase between 1.2˚C –3.4˚C by 2060 compared to pre-industrial levels depending on the emission scenario (GRID Geneva, n.d.). Coupled with nearly annual drought or flood episodes since 2000, Zambia has experienced a reduction in rainfall between 1971-2005 compared to 1940-1970, with its southwestern region most severely affected (ibid.). Water availability is projected to decrease by 13% by 2100 which will have severe consequences for hydropower, agriculture, industrial production, and household use (NDC, 2020). Zambia already faces a high incidence rate of malaria, and this is expected to increase with climate change (GRID Geneva, n.d.). Waste management is a major concern for Zambia’s urban areas, with illegal dumping and open fires leading to both environmental degradation and increased risk of public health outbreaks (Sambo et al., 2020). 

In Zambia’s NDC, it outlines its mitigation actions focusing on sustainable forest management, sustainable agriculture, and renewable energy and efficiency (NDC, 2020). Adaptation programs are related to the promotion of irrigation, strengthening early warning systems, and using GIS/remote sensing in mapping drought/flood prone areas (UNDP, n.d.). 

Country Description

he country has the population of approximately 13.1 million people, with 81.8% resides in rural areas, primarily engaging in subsistence agriculture. The climate of South Sudan is similar to tropical climate with high rainfall season, followed by a drier season. Rainfall occurs in a single rainy season from March to November, peaking between May and September. While the southern and eastern parts receive higher rainfall, the country experiences significant climate variability. Consequently, droughts and floods frequently impact livelihoods, particularly in agriculture (Climate Change Knowledge Portal).   

The country is highly vulnerable to climate risks, including rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, prolonged droughts, and severe flooding. Since the 1970s, average temperatures have increased by 1-1.5°C, with projections indicating further warming by 2060 (African Development Bank). These climate risks, combined with widespread displacement due to ongoing conflict, have intensified food insecurity, and increasing the risk of local conflicts. 

To response to these challenges, South Sudan put the major priorities for actions and investments for climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies (USAID South Sudan Climate Vulnerability Profile). These are outlined in its NDC, focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions through policies in energy, land use, and transport. The country estimates that at least $50 billion is required for mitigation and adaptation efforts by 2030. However, these estimates remain approximate, and further analysis is needed to refine support requirements.

Country Description

Laos, officially known as Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia located in the Mekong River Basin. The country has diverse topography, with approximately 80% of the country’s land area  is mountainous, and the remaining 20% is low lying plains. Laos has two distinct season: rainy season (monsoon) and dry season, experiencing high humidity and average temperature ranging from 15 to 35 in hot season. However, in recent years, the country has been experiencing higher climate risks with increased extreme weather events such as flooding, droughts and heatwaves, as well as changing rainfall patterns and higher  temperatures. The country is amongst the most vulnerable countries to projected climate change trends with the communities facing severe climate-related hazards (World Bank Group, 2021).  

These climate change impacts tend to affect the poorer and more marginalized communities, where  agriculture serves as the primary source of livelihood. It is stated that many households have a high probability of falling into poverty when exposed to the increased extreme weather events (ADB, 2017). Accordingly, Lao PDR  submitted their NDC in 2015 and resubmitted the updated version in 2021 with the main focus on climate change adaptation and mitigation in agriculture, forestry, land use, water resources, energy, transport, urban development and public health.

Country Description

The Kingdom of Thailand is in southeast Asia with coastlines along the Gulf of Thailand to the east and the Andaman Sea to the west. The north and west of the country are hilly and mountainous, the center a low plain, and valleys and small hills in the east. Thailand’s climate is almost entirely tropical and is affected by seasonal monsoon winds, with regional variations. Thailand identifies itself as being highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change such as sea level rise, extreme weather events, flooding, and increases in temperature and extreme precipitation (Kingdom of Thailand, 2022). 

Average annual temperatures in Thailand are projected to increase towards the end of the century with rainfall projections less certain across all RCP scenarios investigated by the World Bank Group (2021). The number of days each year on which temperatures are projected to reach levels dangerous to human health are also expected to increase by the end of the 2080s (ibid.). The frequency of floods, droughts, and other natural disasters are expected to increase (GRID Geneva, n.d.). Floods are already the country’s greatest natural hazard, causing damage to farmland, infrastructure, and leading to loss of life and livelihoods (ibid.). Sea level rise poses a significant threat to coastal areas in the form of coastal inundation, coastal erosion, and land loss, and sea water intrusion, however specific studies in Thailand are limited (World Bank Group, 2021). Nonetheless, significant proportions of Thailand’s critical public infrastructure are located along its coastlines.  

In its Fourth Biennial Update Report to the UNFCC (Kingdom of Thailand, 2022), Thailand outlines that adaptation and mitigation efforts are constrained due to lack of finance, technical expertise, technological development, and a lack of capacity building. Its adaptation aims are to increase water security, decrease losses and damage from water-related disasters, and to establish effective health systems in response to climate-driven health risks, among others (ibid.). 

Country Description

Located in the heart of Southeast Asia, the Philippines is found near the equator and within the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because of this geographic location, the Philippines is counted as one of the most vulnerable countries to various hydrometeorological disasters and ranks first among 193 countries assessed for disaster risk (World Risk Index 2024).  

With the effects of the climate crisis, low-lying coastal communities are threatened by rising sea levels, while increasingly intense typhoons averaging at about 20 per year (Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration) bring devastating floods and landslides. Moreover, prolonged droughts and erratic rainfall patterns disrupt agriculture, water resources, and access to basic services. These climate impacts disproportionately affect marginalized communities, exacerbating poverty, increasing gender-based violence, and overall inequality. Complex and ever-changing socioeconomic conditions also make the country particularly susceptible to the intensifying effects of climate change. 

Country Description

Papua New Guinea is one of the countries considered most at-risk of climate change ranking 12th in the 2024 World Risk Report (World Risk Report). The economy is dominated by two main sectors: (1) agriculture, forestry, and fisheries and (2) the extraction of mineral energy (World Bank Group). The country is prone to many natural disasters, including cyclones, drought, earthquakes, floods, landslides, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions. It ranks among the top six countries with the highest percentage of the population exposed to earthquake hazards and the highest percentage of the population exposed to severe volcanic risk (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery Papua New Guinea Country Profile 2016). Additionally, heavy rains in the country often lead to landslides and cause damage to road infrastructure and livelihoods. These hazards are likely to be exacerbated by climate change (2019 Disaster Risk Reduction in Papua New Guinea Status Report).

Country Description

Nepal is a landlocked country in the Himalayas between India to south, east, and west and Tibet to the north. It is mostly mountainous, but has a diverse range of plains, subalpine forests, and valleys. Nepal’s climate varies seasonally and by altitude, with vast differences in both average temperature and precipitation between the relatively low altitude south and the high altitude north. Climate change is expected to exacerbate the risks Nepal already faces from natural disasters putting its energy, agriculture, water resources, forestry, biodiversity, and health systems at even greater risks (Government of Nepal, 2014).  

Nepal has already started to feel the impacts of climate change through species ranges shifting to higher altitudes, glaciers melting, and extreme precipitation events happening more frequently (World Bank Group, 2021). Average annual temperatures are expected to be higher in Nepal than the global average, particularly during the winter months (ibid.). Along with increased risk of droughts and floods, Nepal is also facing a growing hazard from glacier lake outburst floods due to glacier melt (ibid.). Climate change is exacerbating existing inequalities in Nepal and is having a negative impact on health with vector- and waterborne disease incidence (World Bank Group, 2022). The Growing season for plants has already been found to be longer at higher altitudes, and the tree line along the Himalayas is moving further up, indicating the shrinking of the alpine ecoregion (World Bank Group, 2021).  

In Nepal’s National Adaptation Program of Action (2010) they outline several adaptation programs to reduce vulnerability to climate change including investing in breeding drought-tolerant crops, non-conventional irrigation, and establishing a national disaster preparedness and management agency. Nepal has one of the world’s largest hydropower resources and could become even more prominent with accelerated glacial melt (though maintenance and the threat of infrastructure damage also rises) (World Bank Group, 2022). 

Country Description

Bangladesh has a humid, warm climate influenced by pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon circulations and frequently experiences heavy precipitation and tropical cyclones (World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal). In the World Risk Report, Bangladesh is 9th among 193 countries assessed for disaster risk (World Risk Index 2023). 

In rural areas, where nearly 80 percent of the population live, climate change has an immediate and direct effect on the health and wellbeing of millions of people who depend on natural resources for their livelihoods. The impacts of climate change are also increasingly felt in large cities that are exposed to various climate-induced hazards, including variations in temperature, excessive and erratic rainfall, water logging, flooding, and heat and cold waves (Bangladesh: Finding It Difficult to Keep Cool as cited in Rabbani et al, 2011). 

Country Description

Honduras is a country in Central America, bordered by the Caribbean to the east and the Pacific to the west. Honduras’s climate is hot and tropical in the coastal lowlands and more temperate in the highlands. Forest takes up 41% of the country’s land followed by 27% that is agricultural (World Bank Group, 2021). 82% of the country is mountainous (ibid.). 50% of Honduras’s population lives in rural areas – of which 65% live in poverty – and depend on rainfed agriculture (World Bank Group, 2023). Honduras is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to its high exposure to climate-related hazards (e.g., hurricanes, drought, tropical storms, floods) (ibid.). 

Temperatures are projected to increase by 1-2.5°C by 2050 and extreme rainfall and flood events are expected to become more frequent, along with a reduction in rainfall and an increase in droughts (GRID Geneva, n.d.). This is expected to have a negative effect on hydropower production which currently generates almost 40% of Honduras’s energy as well as on freshwater availability and quality (particularly in the Dry Corridor) (ibid.). Climactic changes are also expected to increase the spread of vector- and waterborne diseases, worsen food insecurity, and higher yield losses due to drought and disease. As temperatures rise, coffee (the main agricultural export) farmers will need to move to higher elevations increasing land degradation (ibid.). Severe climate change effects along with mining, deforestation, and agro-industry has severely threatened livelihoods and human rights, pushing many in poorer communities in Honduras to flee the country (UN, 2023). 

The DNCC (Honduras Climate Change National Office) is responsible for delivering national-level action on adaptation. Honduras’s Country Vision and National Plan (2010) aims to focus on sustainable development whilst minimizing environmental vulnerability and climactic threats. According to GRID Geneva (n.d.) Honduras has made progress in setting up a policy and regulatory framework for addressing climate change but many are yet to be implemented. 

Country Description

Guatemala is located in Central America, bordering the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea; it has a rich topography composed of mountain ranges that reach up to 4220 masl. Guatemala has a population of 17 million inhabitants. Inequality is persistent and the population faces deprivation in access to basic services and rights (MARN, SGCCC, & UNDP 2021). The economy is mainly concentrated in agriculture, and activities linked to the use of natural resources such as livestock, hunting, forestry, and fisheries sub-sectors (World Bank Group, 2021). 

Its location and topography make it especially vulnerable to hydrometeorological phenomena, such as tropical storms or the El Niño events, which generate extreme events in the territory, such as floods, droughts, extreme temperatures or landslides. In fact, 74% of settlements are exposed to at least one of these hazards (MARN, SGCCC, & PNUD, 2021). 

During the last decades, climate change has generated a temperature and precipitation increase. Temperatures are expected to continue to rise, but total precipitation is expected to decrease and rain patterns are expected to become more unstable. These predictions, coupled with socioeconomic conditions, place the majority of the population in a situation of high vulnerability to the effects of climate change (MARN, SGCCC, & UNDP 2021). The agriculture sector is particularly vulnerable as small agricultural producers are highly impacted by droughts associated with climate change, for example, droughts can cause up to a 55% production loss (World Bank Group, 2021). 

Country Description

Georgia is a middle-income country located in the South Caucasus Region. It has natural boundaries on three sides with mountains in the north and south and a coastline along the Black Sea in the west. It has the most glaciers of countries in the Caucasus region, many of which have retreated since the 1970s due to temperature rise (World Bank Group, 2021). 

Georgia has a ranking of 104th in the World Risk Report for2023 with medium exposure, vulnerability and has a moderate lack of adaptive capacities. Its most vulnerable system is the Black Sea coastline which is subject to coastal erosion and sea level rise (0.7m between 1956 and 2007 (World Bank Group, 2021)).  Across all RCP pathways, Georgia is expected to face an increase in average temperatures and droughts by 2080 (World Bank Group, 2021). 

Glacier-fed rivers are projected to see reduced flow by the end of the 21st century (World Bank Group, 2021). Salinized soil is an increasing problem in the country due to both natural and economic factors and is predicted to compound desertification in Georgia (ibid.). Regional disparities in living standards are expected to increase due to climate change, though it is possible that the relatively poorer communities in mountainous areas may be able to grow more diverse crops due to increases in temperatures (ibid.). 

According to its Biennial Transparency Report to the UNFCCC (2024) Georgia is in the planning phases of a National Adaptation plan that will help it meet its commitments in its NDC. In its NDC it outlines plans to assess the effects of climate change on costal zones, mountain ecosystems, and ecosystem services. 

Country Description

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southeast Africa. Most of the country lies on a high central plateau with mountains in the east. Zimbabwe has a predominantly subtropical climate, but the south is known for its extreme heat, whilst the eastern highlands have cooler temperatures.  Zimbabwe is considered to have high vulnerability and a very high lack of adaptive capacity according to the 2023 World Risk Index. 

The key climate change impacts expected in Zimbabwe are water- and food-security related, as well as the health impacts from vector and waterborne diseases (UNDP, n.d.). Between 1970 and 2016 Zimbabwe’s mean annual temperature increased about 0.3˚C per year (World Bank Group, 2021). Zimbabwe’s temperature is expected to increase between 1˚C -1.5˚C by 2040 from a 1986-2005 baseline, depending on the emission scenario (ibid.). Average rainfall is projected to decrease by 10% in this period, however, there is more uncertainty with these estimates (GRID Geneva, n.d.). At the same time, intense rainfall leading to flooding is expected to increase. 80% of agriculture – accounting for 67% of total employment in the country – is rainfed, making it one of the sectors most vulnerable to the effects of climate change (World Bank Group, 2021). By 2050, Zimbabwe is projected to have a 38% decrease in national water availability per capita because of climate change which is expected to have severe knock-on effects for agriculture, power generation, health, tourism, and the country’s wildlife species (ibid.). 

Zimbabwe has submitted the third version of its NDC with a plan for 2025-2035 (Government of Zimbabwe, 2025) in which it outlines that adaptation is its policy goal for the next decade. Zimbabwe is implementing various projects with national and international funding. Along with the Green Climate Fund Zimbabwe is focusing on projects related to Renewable Energy, Integrated Waste Management, Forestry, Agriculture, and DRR (Government of Zimbabwe, 2021). 

Country Description

Mozambique is a country in southern Africa with a 2,500km coastline along the Indian Ocean. It has abundant natural resources both onshore and offshore. North of the Zambezi River Mozambique has inland hills and low plateaus, followed by rugged highlands further west. South of the Zambezi are lowlands and in the deep south are the Lebombo Mountains. Mozambique has an altitude-dependent tropical climate with a wet season from October to March and a dry Season April to September. Mozambique is frequently exposed to cyclones in the wet season and droughts are very common disasters occurring every three to four years (World Bank Group, 2023). As one of the poorest countries in the world and one of the most frequently and worst affected by natural disasters – the majority of which are linked to climate change (UNDP, n.d.) – Mozambique is the 7th most at risk country in the world (World Risk Index, 2023). 

Since 1960, average annual temperatures have increased by 0.9˚C and are projected to rise another 1˚C in the next 20 years (GRID Geneva, n.d.). In that same time period, rainfall decreased 3.1% per decade whilst the proportion of days with heavy rainfall increased by 2.6% per decade (ibid.). This has contributed to catastrophic flooding and has destroyed crops, homes, infrastructure, and taken thousands of lives. Climate change is expected to increase the risk and severity of droughts and floods in Mozambique, with severe consequences for the 70% of its population that live in rural areas and depend on rain-fed subsistence farming (World Bank Group, 2023). Climate change is projected to exacerbate the effects of the natural hazards that Mozambique is already exposed to (ibid.). 

According to GRID Geneva (n.d.), Mozambique has the right policies and initiatives planned to address its climate risks, however its institutional, financial, technical, and capacity building barriers limit their implementation. 

Country Description

Malawi is a landlocked country in the southern part of Africa, bordered by Tanzania, Mozambique, and Zambia. The country has a diverse topography, with one of the most significant geographical features is Lake Malawi, the third-largest lake in Africa. Other than that, the country’s topography consists of high, well-watered plateaus broken by large hills (World Bank Group, 2021).   

Malawi has a subtropical climate, characterized by two seasons: rain season from November to April, and dry season from May to October. The country experiences high temperature and humidity, with different range of temperature depending on the region and season. However, recently the country has experienced increased in frequency of climate change impacts including erratic rainfall, droughts, prolonged dry spells and strong winds. These changes has impacted on various sectors of the economy such as agriculture, health, water, energy, transport, education, gender, forestry, wildlife and infrastructure. Consequently, as the majority of Malawians rely on small-scale, rain-fed agriculture, the communities are highly dependent on the weather patterns. This makes the communities even more susceptible to extreme weather events (Irish Aid, 2018).  

Recognizing the challenges, the Government of Malawi has initiated adaptation and mitigation measures and strategies including Malawi 2063, which emphasizes environmental sustainability as one of the most cross-cutting factors. Furthermore, Malawi submitted their NDC with the unconditional and conditional contribution of 51% reduction in GHG emissions by 2040 across the three pillars:  (i) institutional framework, (ii) knowledge, technology and financing and (iii) resilience of the most vulnerable. 

Country Description

Madagascar, the fifth largest island in the world, is located just off the southern edge of the African continent in the Indian Ocean. The country’s diverse topography, including coastal plains, high plateaus and mountain ranges, contribute to its varied climate conditions. Madagascar’s climate varies by region: the southwest has a semi-arid to arid climate, the eastern coast experiences a tropical climate, and the central highlands have moderate temperatures and moisture levels. The arid conditions in the southwest result from trade winds from the Indian Ocean, which lose their moisture over the eastern coast and highlands, creating a rain shadow effect in the western part of the country (World Bank Group, 2021). 

In recent years, the country has been facing increasing range of climate hazards such as tropical cyclones, droughts, floods, and rising sea levels. These impacts have profound effects on the country’s key sectors such as agriculture, infrastructure, water and sanitation, health, education, and increasing the poverty rate (Miklyaev & Olubamiro, 2025). For instance, the agricultural sector, which employs approximately 80% of the population, is greatly affected by the heavy rainfall and extreme weather events, leading to the crop losses and food insecurity. To address these challenges, Madagascar submitted their NDC in 2022, with details on various adaptation strategies and policies such as enhancing agricultural resilience and improving water resource management.

Country Description

Morocco is a country in northwest Africa bordering the Atlantic Ocean and the Alboran Sea to the west. The country’s climate varies with its topography. The Rif mountains lie in the north, the Atlas Mountains in the center, plateaus in the east, plains and the coastlines in the west, and desert along the edge of the Sahara in the south. Most of Morocco experiences mild, wet winters and hot dry summers. Increased temperatures and reduced precipitation are expected to have negative effects on Morocco’s water availability and food security, thus making it highly vulnerable to climate variability and change (World Bank Group, 2021). 

Morocco’s average annual temperature has increased in recent decades and is projected to rise more by the end of the century, characterized by more frequent, intense, and widespread heatwaves (IEA, 2023). Precipitation trends have shown high variability; however, the past several decades have demonstrated more erratic and overall lower rainfall across the country (World Bank Group, 2021). Increasing frequency, magnitude, and duration of drought is a major ongoing concern for the country (ibid.). Water scarcity will have severe consequences on the country’s agriculture, health, and infrastructure (e.g., due to the failure of sewage and storm water systems) and has pushed agriculture to fragile lands. By increasing the average annual temperature and the intensity of heatwaves, climate change is also expected to put a greater number of people in Morocco at risk of heat-related medical conditions. Rising sea levels and toxic algae blooms caused by warmer Mediterranean waters are also projected to have negative consequences for Morocco’s fisheries (ibid.). 

Morocco aims to increase its share of renewable electricity generation from 17.6% in 2020 to 52% by 2050, however, renewables are sensitive to climate conditions and require adaptation measures (IEA, 2023). 

Country Description

Niger is a landlocked country in Western Africa, belonging to the Sahel region. Characterized by its location within the said region, the country is exposed to a hot and dry climate with significant variability in rainfall. The said region, encompassing around 80% of the Niger’s land area, has a “high dependence on rain-fed agriculture and its natural resources to support food security and livelihoods, rapid population growth, and chronic humanitarian crises due to recurrent drought, flooding, food insecurity, epidemics, and violent conflict. The country has shown history of droughts and flooding.” (Climate Change Knowledge Portal). According to the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, temperature in Niger is projected to rise by between 2.0 and 4.6 °C by 2080, compared to pre-industrial levels, with higher temperatures and more temperature extremes projected for the south-west of Niger.  
 
Given these compounding factors, climate change will likely exacerbate existing vulnerabilities in the country. Water scarcity, longer dry seasons and impacts of higher temperatures may trigger new conflict and forced migration, issues that already impact the region. (USAID Climate Risk Profile, 2017).

Country Description

Mali, officially known as the Republic of Mali, is one of the largest countries in West Africa. The country is landlocked, sharing border with seven countries: Algeria, Mauritania, Niger, Burkina, Faso, Ivory Coast, Guinea and Senegal. It is known to be one of the hottest countries in the world, with most parts the country has desert or semi-desert climate, except for the far south-west region with more tropical wet dry climate. Rainfall varies significantly across the country, decreasing from south to north, with the northern region receiving minimal precipitation during the boreal summer. Temperatures remain consistently high, with large variations between day and night, as well as between seasons, especially in the northern areas (African Development Bank Group).  

In recent years, Mali has faced increasing climate risks, including rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, prolonged droughts, and desertification (World Bank Group). As the majority of cereal crops in Mali are rain-fed, which are vulnerable to rainfall variability, these climate change impacts can threaten both livelihoods and food security. Additionally, the country is among the least developed countries in the world, with 44% of the population is below the poverty line (World Bank). To face these challenges, Mali updated their NDC in 2021, with the key highlights on emission reduction targets by 2030, increased commitment compared to 2015 submission, gender integration to align with Sustainable Development Goals, and including detailed monitoring and reporting framework (UNDP). It also strengthens adaptation measures across key sectors such as agriculture, forestry, water resources, and energy, and introduces decentralized climate funds to support community-led resilience initiatives. 

Country Description

Ghana is a lower-middle-income country in West Africa with a coast along the Atlantic Ocean. It has two main ecological zones: the southern region (30%) is predominantly forest whilst the remaining 70% of the country is part of the Northern Savannah Ecological Zone and is drier. Average annual rainfall in the south is almost double that experienced in the north (World Bank Group, 2023).

Climate change poses a significant threat to Ghana due to sea level rise in the south and Sahelian climate effects in the north (Ghana EPA, 2020). Average temperatures are expected to increase by 2.3°C to 5.3°C by the end of the century (World Bank Group, 2021). Ghana is vulnerable to intense and complex droughts, flooding, increasing aridity, and faces a high degree of risk to hazards and disasters. The key climate change impacts in Ghana will be in the health sector due to the rise in infectious disease and agricultural sectors resulting from changes in rainfall and flooding along the coastal areas (World Bank Group, 2023). More than 70% of the country’s land area is used for agriculture, a sector which employs 45% of Ghana’s population (World Bank, Group 2021). Most of the agricultural production takes place in the Northern Savannah Ecological Zone, where poverty rates are close to 45% (compared to a national average of 10%) and where the effects of climate change are expected to be most severe (ibid.). ¼ of the population lives along the coast in highly urbanized areas like Accra which are vulnerable to extreme flooding (ibid.).

Ghana has invested in a range of adaptation measures and climate related projects including sea defense projects along the coastline, building the resilience of smallholder farmers, and improving flood risk and waste management in Accra (Ghana EPA, 2020).

CARE Ghana’s resilience approach focuses on reducing the impact of hazards, enhancing people’s ability to accommodate the immediate impact of shocks and stresses and improving capacity to adapt to frequent floods, drought and other climatic conditions. CARE Ghana’s work at the community level is driven by a participatory Community-Based Adaptation (CBA) approach, involving community awareness-raising, training and decision making, to identify appropriate adaptation responses to the challenges faced by communities. Beyond the community level, CARE Ghana works with key partners and civil society organizations to influence policy formulation and implementation at the national and sub national level.

Country Description

Chad is a landlocked country in Central Africa, located in the Sahel region, a semi-arid zone highly vulnerable to climate change. With a population of 17 million, 40% live in poverty. Environmental degradation, including the drying of Lake Chad, and soil degradation are climate-related impacts experienced by the country (World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal). About three-quarters of Chad’s territory is desert and persistent drought has accelerated desertification in the northern part of the country, leading to a decline in agro-pastoral areas (UNEP GRID-Geneva). 

As part of the Sahel, Chad is expected to experience temperature increases projected to rise 1.5 times faster than the global average. The region is also particularly susceptible to extreme weather events such as prolonged droughts, floods, and intense heatwaves (World Bank Group).

Country Description

Tanzania is the largest country in east Africa with a coastline along the Indian Ocean. Tanzania is predominantly a highland area sitting 900-1800m above sea level with mountains ranges throughout, except by the coast where it is flatter. Tanzania’s climate is largely driven by altitude, with tropical lowlands in the east to colder highlands in the north and southwest. It is vulnerable to the effects of climate change in public health, energy supply, infrastructure, water resources, and agriculture (World Bank Group, n.d.). Climate change is expected to exacerbate the risks from extreme weather events such as variation in rainfall and frequent and prolonged droughts and floods (ibid.). 

Air temperature in Tanzania is expected to rise across all emission scenarios, with the annual number of very hot days projected to rise substantially with high certainty (GIZ, 2021). Sea level rise threatens communities along the coast and may cause saline intrusion, threatening water supply and biodiversity (ibid.). Projections on precipitation vary with some models projecting a large decrease (>42mm by 2080 compared to 2000) whilst others suggest almost no change (ibid.). However, heavy precipitation events are expected to become more intense (ibid.). Water availability is predicted to decline by 76% under both RCP2.6 and RCP6.0, though this is region-specific (ibid.). Changes in waterflows have impacted the country’s capacity to generate and supply electricity, particularly hydropower, which has been directly attributed to climate change driven droughts (United Republic of Tanzania, 2007). 

In its first NDC (2021) Tanzania outlines its adaptation measures in various sectors such as forestry (e.g. enhancing participatory sustainable forest management), coastal, marine environments and fisheries (e.g., promoting livelihood diversification for coastal communities), and energy (e.g., promoting climate-smart rural electrification). 

Country Description

Uganda is a land-locked country located in East Africa. The Climate Change Knowledge Portal has noted that in past decades, the country has experienced “more erratic rainfalls leading to frequent busting of rivers, mudslides and landslides that lead to loss of lives and property of communities especially those living in the mountainous areas.” Previously known to have a tropical climate with stable rainfall patterns, the effects of climate change have affected the regularity of the seasons with the country experiencing shorter or longer rains and harsher droughts – especially in the eastern and north-eastern Uganda (IOM Uganda). 
 
The Climate Change Department of the Ministry of Water & Environment of Uganda, with the main objective to strengthen Uganda’s implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol (KP), identified four sections of focus for their government-led climate action: adaptation, mitigation, outreach, and international relations. Even with the substantial strides made in developing climate adaptation governance systems across Africa over the last decade, actual implementation remains a significant hurdle. The primary obstacles are the lack of effective collaboration between government agencies and the insufficient connection between national, district, and community stakeholders (Institutional challenges to climate change adaptation: A case study on policy action gaps in Uganda, 2017, E. L. Ampaire, et.al). Given its close connection to climate-dependent resources, Uganda faces severe climate vulnerability. The projected changes, such as heightened food insecurity, disease expansion, soil erosion, and flood-related damage, risk undermining the country’s development achievements (Relief Web, 2008). 

Country Description

Somalia, officially known as the Federal Republic of Somalia, is located in the Horn of Africa, bordering Djibouti to the northwest, Ethiopia to the west and Kenya to the southwest. It has the longest coastline of all African states, stretching over 3025 km. The country has the majority classified as semi-arid or arid climate, with the topography characterised by mountainous terrain in the north, and mostly flat plateaus in the south (African Development Bank). The temperatures are hot, and rainfall is highly variable with two rainy seasons – the long rains (March-May) associated with southwest monsoons, and short rains (October – November) with northeast monsoons.  

Somalia is facing risk due to several natural hazards, including drought, floods, cyclones, and climate-related diseases (World Bank Group). Additionally, the increase in rainfall can be associated with the increase in rainfall events and extreme intensity of rainfall. These challenges threaten key sectors such as agriculture, which employs 70% of the workforce, as well as water security, infrastructure, and coastal settlements (Adelphi – Climate Risk Profile).  

With a large portion of the population highly vulnerable to climate risks, Somalia submitted their NDC (2021) emphasize adaptation strategies such as disaster risk reduction, improved water management, and sustainable land use practices to build resilience and ensure long-term stability. 

Country Description

Ethiopia is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa with a highly diverse climate due to its varied landscapes (rainforests in the south and southwest and deserts in the east, northeast, and southeast lowlands) (CCE Country Profile). It exhibits a high variability in precipitation between areas of high and low elevation (GIZ, 2021). Its average temperature has increased by an average of 1°C since the 1960s (World Bank, 2021) and air temperature is expected to increase between 1.6-3.7°C relative to pre-industrial levels by 2080 (GIZ, 2021). 

Ethiopia has one of the fastest growing and poorest (rGDP pc USD570 in 2018) populations in the world (GIZ, 2021). 73% of the population is engaged in the agricultural sector and is reliant on subsistence-based and rain-fed agriculture for food security and livelihoods (ibid.). These factors exacerbate vulnerability to the high degree of risk from hydrometeorological hazards and disasters (World Bank, 2021) Ethiopia is subject to, along with climate change-driven threats including declining water availability, reduced food security, and increased frequency and severity of droughts and floods. Tensions between agricultural, livestock, and human population demands for water are expected to increase in the coming years as seasonal rainfall becomes more variable (World Bank, 2021). 

Ethiopia is focusing on projects to improve crop and livestock production practices in an attempt to increase food security and farmer income as well as to increase its watershed capacity fourfold by 2030 (from 2018 baseline) (Nationally Determined Contribution 2021). 

Country Description

Kenya is a country in East Africa with a southeastern coastline along the Indian Ocean. Low plateaus run from the coast inland to mountain ranges in the southwest of the country. The coast is typically hot and humid whilst the north and northeast are hot and arid, and the highlands are cooler. The population and agricultural land are mainly concentrated in Kenya’s western, central, and coastal regions. It is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and is highly exposed to natural hazards (particularly floods and droughts) (GRID Geneva, n.d.). 

Across all emission scenarios Kenya’s average annual temperature is projected to rise by the end of the century compared to pre-industrial levels (World Bank Group 2021). Precipitation is expected to remain highly variable, with extreme rainfall events increasing frequency, duration, and intensity (ibid.). Climate change will likely increase the risk and intensity of floods and increase the likelihood of drought in some areas (ibid.). Extreme rainfall may lead to increased risk of mudslides and landslides, particularly in mountainous areas (ibid.). Kenya’s majority rain-fed agricultural sector is an essential part of its economy and food security; however, it is particularly vulnerable to climate change (GRID Geneva, n.d.). The high degree of variability in seasonal rainfall already has severe consequences on livelihoods of small-scale farmers and is expected to be exacerbated by climate change (ibid.). Sea level rise threatens the safety and livelihoods of coastal communities, as well as key sectors like fishing, fisheries, shipping, and tourism. The mountain glaciers that supply water for almost 60% of the country’s hydropower and large parts of its agricultural land are expected to disappear in the next 30 years, threatening energy, food, and water security (ibid). 

Despite aiming to increase renewables in its energy generation mix (Republic of Kenya,  2020)  Kenya’s coal usage is expected to increase in the coming years with two new coal powerplants in the proposal stages.