The Netherlands is a densely populated, highly urbanized, low-lying country in northern Europe with three islands in the Caribbean (Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba). Roughly 26% of the country lies below sea level and large portions of it are reclaimed from the sea and are preserved with an elaborate system of the Delta Works, dikes, canals, and pumping stations. The country is largely flat with the exception of some foothills in the southeast. It is divided by the Rhine, the Waal, and the Meuse. 

Of the EU states, the Netherlands is the 5th largest producer of GHG emissions in 2022 (EEA, 2022) and is extremely unlikely to reach its legally binding climate goal of reducing emissions in 2030 by 55% compared to 1990 levels (Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, 2024). The mean annual temperature in the Netherlands rose 2.3˚C between 1901 and 2020 and will continue to rise putting further strain on its energy system, agriculture, and health (IEA, 2022). Meanwhile, annual precipitation has increased by 21% between 1906 and 2020 and is projected to rise with extreme precipitation events becoming more frequent and intense (ibid.). Flooding is a major risk in the Netherlands, with sea level rise posing a major threat. In the worst-case scenario, the KNMI estimates that sea level rise in the North Sea could be between 54-121cm by 2100 (KNMI, 2021). At the same time, the increasing threat of droughts could impact water security, agriculture, dike integrity, and water transport (Deltares, n.d.). 

The Netherlands is working on both mitigation and adaptation measures. It aims to increase the share of renewables to 27% by 2030, support a just transition, enhance energy efficiency of homes, require all new passenger cars to be emission-free by 2030, and further raise a targeted carbon levy including the Emissions Trading Scheme (Government of the Netherlands, n.d.).